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Mary L. Brady, Ph. D
Our Other Websites African Heritage Arts & History African Heritage Bible Supplement Jeffersonian Notes, Nouns & Verbs |
Category 2 Requirements:
The
Trans-Alaska Pipeline, about 1300 km (about 800 mi) long, was built in the
mid-1970s to carry crude petroleum from Prudhoe Bay on Alaska's northern coast
south to the city of Valdez on Prince William Sound. Nearly all of the state's
petroleum comes from Prudhoe Bay. Mining, predominantly petroleum extraction,
accounts for more than one-third of Alaska's gross state product.
21 Mining
The rotary drilling rig uses a series of rotating pipes, called the drill string, to tap into oil reservoirs. The drill string is supported by a derrick, and turned by the rotary table on its floor. Circulating, mud-like fluid driven by a pump removes cuttings as the teeth of the drill bit dig into the rock around the reservoir. Reservoirs occur in many places. They form as a result of intense pressure on top of layers of dead marine and land organisms mixed with sand or silt. This reservoir abuts a salt dome, which has trapped a layer of oil and natural gas between itself and nonporous rock. Because they have no place to expand, the gas and crude oil are under high pressure and will tend to rush explosively out the channel opened by the drill rig.
2111 Oil and
Gas Extraction
Nigeria ranks as a major exporter of oil. At Brass, on the southern tip of the Niger Delta, oil is held for export in these huge tanks. Surrounded by significant oil fields and adjacent to large seaports, Brass provides a convenient storage point. It is not apparent that Nigeria is developing gifted and talented youth versus the power of government to manage and/or be owners of this capability. 211112
Natural Gas Liquid Extraction 2121 Coal Mining
These charts show the countries that produce the most coal and the countries that consume the most coal. Coal is burned to produce electricity and to make coke for the production of steel. China produces and consumes more coal than any other country in the world.
21211 Coal Mining
212112 Bituminous Coal Underground Mining 212113 Anthracite Mining u E 1231 Anthracite Mining
2122 Metal Ore Mining
A mammoth earth-mover
prepares to hoist ore in an Australian iron mine. The machine uses tank-like
tracks to traverse the floor of the mine, and its shovel is capable of lifting
heavy loads of rock into trucks for transport.
Mexico's silver and petroleum industries provide an important source of income for the nation. Mexico leads the world in silver mining and provides significant quantities of petroleum to other countries. Iron mining occurs primarily in the northeastern part of the country in the states of Durango and Coahuila.
21222 Gold Ore and Silver Ore Mining  This gold mine is located in Johannesburg, South Africa, a city that at one time had the world's largest known gold deposits. The golden spoil heap in the background, the result of decades of gold extraction, is a typical sight in the city. Today Johannesburg has few gold mines, but extensive gold mining continues in the Witwatersrand, a rocky uplift region beyond the city. 212221 Gold Ore Mining
212234 Copper Ore and Nickel Ore Mining
Two important kinds of copper ore are
contained in this sample: chalcopyrite (top) and bornite (bottom). Copper ore is
found throughout the world, but the low percentage of metal obtained from the
ore and the often hard-to-access location of deposits make many potential mines
uneconomic. Copper is the second most-used metal in the world and is valued for
its conductivity, malleability, resistance to corrosion, and beauty.
21229 Other Metal Ore Mining
Mining in the Pilbara region of Western Australia is done by the open-cut
method, in which large masses of ore-bearing rock are broken up and then removed
by power shovels and trucks. Mining is one of Australia's most important
industries. The country has large deposits of bauxite, coal, diamonds, gold,
iron ore, nickel, uranium, and other minerals.
The
often distinctive landscape of limestone areas occurs when water turns acidic
from absorbing carbon dioxide and then reacts with the limestone, dissolving it.
Some of the most characteristic features, such as limestone pavements, swallow
holes, and caves, form best in limestone that is relatively thick, well-jointed,
and hard. 212313
Crushed and Broken Granite Mining 212322
Industrial Sand Mining
Sandstone is a type of sedimentary rock made from accumulated particles of sand. The particles are deposited by water, galciers, or wind and are eventually compressed and cemeted together to make sandstone. Sandstone comes in a variety of colors.
Today most pigments for paint and dye are produced synthetically, but in ancient
times people used local minerals. The minerals were crushed into a powder and
mixed with animal fats to produce a wide range of usable colors. Here, several
minerals are shown in original and powdered form alongside paint pigment
samples. Clockwise from top right, the minerals are: hematite (also known as
jewelers' rouge), malachite (a green copper compound), azurite ("royal" blue),
cinnabar (vermilion red), lapis lazuli (ultramarine blue), realgar (an arsenic
compound), and orpiment (shown center; a form of "fool's gold").
213 Support
Activities for Mining A semisubmersible
oil-production rig sits in the waters off Pascagoula, Mississippi. Anchored in
place, a semisubmersible rig has legs that fill with air, allowing the
production platform to float above the surface of the water. Offshore wells
produce about 25 percent of the world's annual output of oil. 213112 Support Activities for Oil and Gas
22 Utilities
The
Kariba Dam lies along the border between Zambia and Zimbabwe. The facility
controls flooding and supplies hydroelectric power to both countries. A public
road traces the rim of the dam, between reservoir Lake Kariba and the drop to
the Zambezi River. The distinct arch shape distributes pressure evenly on the
overall structure of the dam.
221113 Nuclear Electric Power Generation
The Palo Verde Nuclear
Power Facility in Arizona, like other nuclear power plants, was built to harness
nuclear energy for controlled use by humans. The first full-scale nuclear power
plants began operating in 1956 in England and in 1957 in the United States.
Subsequently, several other countries followed suit. Nuclear power is a
controversial energy source: it is inexpensive and creates no air pollution, but
the radioactivity released during accidents at nuclear power plants has caused
deaths and environmental damage.
Water is vital to humans. It is needed for food preparation, drinking, washing,
and irrigation. In addition, massive quantities are used daily in industrial
processes. Yet, it is a limited resource that must be collected and distributed
with increasing care. The most important source of water is rain, which may be
collected directly in cisterns and reservoirs or indirectly through a watershed
system or well. A watershed is the network of rivulets, streams, and rivers by
which entire areas are watered. Ground water is rain that has trickled through
rock layers, forming pools after many years. If it is under pressure,
groundwater may bubble to the surface as a spring. Irrigation canals,
reservoirs, wells, and water towers are man-made devices for diverting and
collecting water from these natural sources. Because of contamination concerns,
water from reservoirs, wells, and rivers is usually processed in a treatment
plant before distribution.
22132 Sewage
Treatment Facilities
The Army Corps of Engineers
managed the construction of the Panama Canal, which was completed in 1914. The
corps overcame heat, tropical disease, and other difficulties that had foiled
previous efforts to build the canal.
Scaffolding allows workers to transport themselves and their materials up and down an unfinished building during construction. Here, workmen on a scaffold platform pull up a panel for the upper levels of the NCNB tower in Tampa Bay, Florida.
Carpenters construct the wooden frame for a suburban home near Houston, Texas.
With the common use of steel and concrete for most building construction, work
opportunities for carpenters have been concentrated in the area of residential
construction.
The civil engineer on the
right peers through the eyepiece of a surveying theodolite to a marked rod held
by a second engineer down the road. Surveying measurements include changes in
ground elevation from the rod to the theodolite, horizontal distances, and both
vertical and horizontal angles. The third member of the surveying team records
the survey data.
Built on concrete pontoons, it is more than 1.6 km (1 mi) long, and supports a major flow of freeway traffic. Bridge consists of 25 sections, one of which is a telescoping floating span frequently opened to allow the passage of large ships.
2341 Highway, Street, Bridge, and Tunnel
The Thames River in London is the most important river in England and the main source of London's water supply.
Locomotives from the eastern and western United States are depicted here meeting in Promontory, Utah, where crowds gathered to watch the joining of the Union Pacific and Central Pacific railroads on May 10, 1869. This first transcontinental railroad opened the West to supplies and resources from the East and served as the chief means of transportation for settlers in the West.
23411 Highway and Street Construction
The United States federal government provides funding for roads, rail lines, dams, and other projects that encourage economic growth for the country as a whole. This highway construction project in Florida was part of a massive expansion of the country's interstate highway system in the 1950s.
An extensive network of interstates and other highways gives motorists the freedom to travel to many areas in the United States. Designed to alleviate traffic and to make long trips safer, faster, and more convenient, the interstate system includes approximately 70,000 km (43,400 mi) of road. Local highways generally connect major towns and popular locations within a relatively small area, while interstates connect the major cities in a broader region. Theoretically, a motorist could cross the country from coast to coast on interstates without encountering a single traffic signal. 23412 Bridge and Tunnel Construction
Bear Mountain Bridge spans the Hudson River near Peekskill, New York
The 244-m (800-ft) London
Tower Bridge spans the Thames River in London. It was the only movable bridge
crossing the Thames when it was completed in 1894. Sir Horace Jones designed the
bridge, and Sir John Wolfe Barry built it.
23491 Water, Sewer, and Pipeline
The pollution of rivers and
streams with chemical contaminants has become one of the most critical
environmental problems of the century. Chemical pollution entering rivers and
streams can be classified according to the nature of its sources: point
pollution and non-point pollution. Point pollution involves pollution from a
single concentrated source that can be identified, such as an outfall pipe from
a factory or refinery. Non-point pollution involves pollution from dispersed
sources that cannot be precisely identified, such as runoff from agricultural or
mining operations or seepage from septic tanks or sewage drain fields.
Electricity is generated
when a loop of conducting wire rotates in a magnetic field. In a hydroelectric
plant, water falling over a dam turns turbines that spin the generators that
produce electricity. The electricity flows to a transmission station where a
transformer changes a large current and low voltage into a small current and
high voltage. Then the electricity flows over high voltage transmission lines to
a series of transmission stations where the voltage is stepped down by
transformers to levels appropriate for distribution to customers. Primary lines
may transmit electricity at voltages as high as 500,000 volts. Secondary lines
to homes carry electricity at 240 volts or 120 volts.
Built to allow oceangoing vessels to bypass the rugged section of the Saint
Lawrence River between Montréal and Lake Ontario, the Saint Lawrence Seaway has
seven locks. The seaway was opened in 1959 to provide a deep, stable channel for
commercial ships along the length of the river that rises 68 m (224 ft) over a
stretch of about 295 km (183 mi). Open from May to November, when it is free of
ice, the waterway is a major development involving five sections: the Lachine,
the Soulanges, the Lake Saint Francis, the International Rapids, and the
Thousand Islands. Several million tons of cargo are transported through the
passage yearly. 2351
Plumbing, Heating, 2353 Electrical Contractors 2354 Masonry, Drywall, Insulation,
Immense slabs of marble tower over mining equipment in a Vermont quarry. In the dimension-stone quarrying method used here, workers split and remove the rock with wedges and drills, rather than with explosives. 2355
Carpentry and Floor Contractors
Structural design, framing, and roofing are selected from a variety of potential
shapes, depending on the material to be used and the size of the building to be
constructed. Underlying frames form the support system of a finished structure,
and may influence its overall shape to a great degree. Larger, taller buildings
usually require more complicated support systems and have less flexibility for
roofing choices. This is primarily because their structures must support weight
over greater spans than those of lower, smaller buildings.
2357 Concrete Contractors
Modern bridge construction for the Gateway Bridge over the Brisbane River in Australia uses lightweight and durable concrete reinforced with steel bars or mesh. Concrete is made from three components: an aggregate material such as sand or gravel, water, and the binding agent, Portland cement. 23571 Concrete Contractors
Portland cement, mixed with water and sand or gravel, forms concrete, a common
building material. Here, a pile driver pushes concrete pilings into the earth to
help support an office building in Boston.
A late commuter sprints to
catch a train on the underground Metropolitan line in France. Subway systems
have a wide variety of names: the Metro in France, the Tube in London, and BART
(Bay Area Rapid Transit) in San Francisco. Underground rapid transit originated
in New York in the early 1900s, and the network continues to grow as cities
expand their transportation options.
Although the primary purpose of elevators is transportation, many elevators are designed to make the ride more interesting for both passengers and observers. The elevators in the Alexandra House office building in London, England, feature glass enclosures and exposed pulleys
Graders are used to level the earth for construction projects. This John Deere grader has a laser leveling unit mounted on its blade; the leveling device constantly adjusts the height of the blade to ensure that the ground is made precisely flat.
23594 Wrecking and Demolition Contractors
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Evergreen
Point floating bridge spans Lake Washington near Seattle. 
